Meaningful instructional planning should begin at the course level.  In order to effectively do this, a curriculum calendar or course schedule should be created.  Alan J. Singer (2003) writes in his book, Social Studies for Secondary Schools:  Teaching to Learn, Learning to Teach, that the value of social studies curriculum, and the willingness of educators to teach this curriculum, lies in the creation of such a course calendar.  He continues by implying that curriculum calendars for academic subjects are often created at the state level, such as with New York State.  Singer provides an example of a calendar in his book, for greater detail.

Some experts in the education field believe that it is at the course level where planning for diverse learners should begin.  Two such supporters of this idea are B. Keith Lenz and Donald D. Deshler (2004).  In their work, Teaching Content to All:  Evidence-Based Inclusive Practices in Middle and Secondary Schools, the authors claim there exists great importance in planning instruction—that includes varied methods, activities, and modifications—when done at the initial level of planning.  Further, Lenz and Deshler think selectively choosing instructional content for diverse learners at this level is just as important as choosing instructional methods at the individual lesson level.  By keeping in mind who is in the classroom an educator can better select what to teach each student.

After planning at the course level is complete—when a curriculum calendar or course schedule containing units to be covered is established—planning can begin on individual units.  Effective unit planning requires a great deal of thought and strategy.  One such strategy is illustrated in the following paragraphs.

Backward planning is a concept that results in the creation of purposeful units and lessons.  It was developed by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (2005) and documented in their book, Understanding By Design.  Backward planning stresses the importance of beginning with identifying the expected learning outcomes students should gain as a result of the unit or lesson taught.  Creating an assessment structure that allows students to show measurable evidence of reaching these outcomes is the second step.  The third step is designing activities that will give students the necessary skills to demonstrate mastery of learning objectives.

Looking at backward planning in more concrete terms, learning outcomes are derived from identifying and interpreting state or local standards, choosing enduring concepts students need to understand by unit’s end, naming skills that are needed to achieve understanding, creating an assessment for tracking progress in skill acquisition and understanding, and choosing lesson activities that will teach these skills (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005).  By following Wiggins and McTighe’s model, purposeful instruction is created and curriculum standards are met.

Wiggins and McTighe (2005) also wish to point out that this planning structure must not only take into account state and local academic standards, but also the diversity of the students being taught.  This point necessitates thoughtfully selecting activities and assessments that will enable all students to achieve the expected learning outcomes.

***

In applying the instructional planning concepts mentioned to my own practice, I first address the use of curriculum calendars.  I do not have much freedom in deciding the units I teach, but that does not bother me because I appreciate having a set foundation with which to use as a beginning teacher.  I imagine the calendar is something I will utilize more regularly once I am a full-time teacher, and that it will make unit and lesson planning much easier for me.

Backward planning is the primary strategy I currently use to create lessons, and the strategy I plan to continue using going forward in my career.  As mentioned in the reflection section, it is something I find very natural.  A backward plan greatly helped in designing a unit on the Civil Rights Movement during the fall semester, and in designing a lesson on the Harlem Renaissance that I taught to in October. I expect backward planning to serve me well in designing a Cold War/Communism unit this semester. Two additional tools that aid in this strategy are the unit organizer and concept map models, advocated by Lenz and Deshler on page 181 of their book. I am currently using these tools and the same backward planning format from the fall semester in designing the Cold War unit, which will be taught in March.

Finally, taking into account the various learning styles and abilities of students in any given inclusion classroom, I plan to continue creating lessons that are modified for the needs of my students.  In this document, modifications exist that I plan to use regularly, such as important words and concepts on the board, repeating instructions and responses to ensure clarity, and scaffolding activities whenever possible.

REFERENCES

Lenz, B. K. & Deshler, D. D. (2004). Teaching content to all: Evidence-based inclusive practices in middle and secondary schools. Boston: Pearson Education.

Singer, A .J. (2003). Social Studies for secondary schools: teaching to learn, learning to teach. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Wiggins, G. P. & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development.

In opening the discussion, I begin with verbal communication.  It is arguably through speech that the most explicit form of conveying thoughts, instructions, and information occurs.  Some of the most interactive, meaningful, and student-centered forms of verbal communication occur through class discussions.  As Stephen Brookfield (1999) explains in Discussions as a Way of Teaching, discussion’s effectiveness derives from its ability to build upon background knowledge, personal experience, and interpretation of ideas.  Therefore, discussion becomes relevant to the participants.

A major element of discussion, Brookfield explains, is questioning.  Verbal communication expressed through thoughtful questioning of ideas, events, and/or opinions keeps students engaged in the lesson at hand.  Also, questioning is not necessarily inherent to teachers or students, so practice and skill must take place when utilizing this strategy.  In planning questions for an engaging activity, the author suggests discussions include those questions that ask for further support of ideas, link experiences and prior knowledge to new ideas or opinions, and encourage students to predict, infer, or form their own opinions.  He also points out that this form of verbal communication can often be unpredictable and surprising, so teachers must be ready to create thought provoking questions on the spot, in addition to the planned questions (Brookfield, 1999, pp. 85, 87-89).

Continuing with communication in teaching, I shift my focus to non-verbal methodology.  It can include such outlets as body language, eye contact, and gesturing.  While non-verbal communication has many uses, I will focus on its use in incentive systems and student self-praise.  In Educational Psychology:  Theory and Practice, Robert E. Slavin (2003) discusses how grades can be used as non-verbal incentives in motivating students.  He notes that using grades as incentives for learning motivators can be an effective way communicating encouragement and/or feedback when applied close to the time when the students’ performance took place.  The closer to the time of the event, the more motivational power the grades hold.

The author also discusses how students can receive encouraging non-verbal within themselves through self-praise.  By patting themselves on the back for accomplishing a task or meeting a goal, students increase their confidence, self-value, and academic success (Slavin, 2003, p. 358).  I suspect self-praise is a skill that must be modeled by teachers if it is to be used by students.

In concluding this discussion on best practices for communication methods used in active and meaningful teaching, a short discussion on media’s role in accomplishing this goal is in order.  Various media are used in the classroom, but this discussion focuses on two major categories—audiovisual media and computerized media—as outlined in Computers in the Classroom, by Edward Vockell and Eileen Schwartz (2009).

First, Vockell and Schwartz look at the benefits of audiovisual materials in communicating information that elicits active learning.  Photographs and other graphics, for instance, serve as more realistic modes of communicating subject content than textbooks.  Pictures and sounds—such as songs, spoken readings, or recited speeches—can grab students’ attention more easily that printed texts alone.  Finally, audiovisual materials give students of differing learning styles more opportunities to access subject content taught in a lesson (2009).

My first example focuses on verbal communication.  In an introductory lesson to my unit on “The Spread of Communism”, I created an activity that required students to solve a problem based on a specific scenario.  In this scenario, each pair of students found a large sum of money lying in the street.  The problem was required the students to jointly decided what to do about their discovery.  The scenario become even more complicated once each student received an opposing solution to this problem.  The goal of the activity was for each pair to negotiate an agreed-upon solution, thus using compromise to do so.  In addition to analyzing their own ethics, students required a great deal of verbal communication to complete their tasks.  Through discussing their difference of opinion and forming unified answers, students learned what skills were required of the Big Three leaders during the Yalta conference of 1945.  The activity provided a smooth transition into acquiring information and meaning on a historically significant event.

A second example of learning through communication involves non-verbal interaction.  During the middle of the communism unit, I opened a lesson on the Berlin Airlift with an interactive and experiential activity.  This activity used both verbal and non-verbal communication, but it was the non-verbal interactions that created the most impacting learning experiences for the students.  Once they were seated, I asked two volunteers to divide the classroom in half with duct tape.  The tape was attached to opposite walls running the length of the room, and at about three feet above the floor.

Once the room was divided, I gave students directions to the main activity of the day, which was to complete a map on NATO and the Warsaw Pact.  Next, I showed the students where the map and art supplies were located in the room—on only one side of the tape barrier.  At that point in the activity, I told students to begin creating their maps then remained silent for the next two to three minutes, to observe what students learn from the set up of the room.  As some of the students realized their inability to acquire the needed items for their classwork, they began analyzing their environment very precisely—to devise a plan for acquiring the forbidden items.  The blockaded half of the room noticed that they were denied items essential to their academic survival due to a manmade barrier, and that the students on the other side were free to use those same items as they pleased.

My final example of communication in the classroom illustrates how media can be used to convey valuable information to students.  In the Fall 2008 semester, I designed a lesson to teach the important inventions from the Industrial Revolution.  Being that the revolution occurred in the 18th and 19th centuries, I realized the possibility of disconnectedness between the time period and today.  As a result, I created a webquest that allowed students to connect the Industrial Revolution to the 21st century.

In the webquest, I introduced students to general everyday household items—such as email and cell phones—then led them in a computerized adventure back in time to observe these items (or their predecessors) being invented.  In the activity, students clicked on links to articles and videos that discuss the invention of these items and their inventors.  Students were expected to read each article, watch each video, and take notes on information they deemed important.  After “witnessing” the creation of these inventions, students were asked to choose two innovations, play the role of a New York Times reporter from the Industrial Revolution days, and write a one-page newspaper article on the impact of each item on 19th century society, and compare those thoughts to each item’s impact on society today.

By creating the Industrial Revolution webquest, I expect students to use such skills as online research, analysis of primary and secondary resources for important information, applying prior knowledge and personal experiences to new knowledge gained, and to synthesize knew learning through creation of an authentic product.  In doing so, computerized, audio, and visual media can communicate important subject content to a wide variety of learning styles and abilities.

Thank you for visiting my site and reading the articles.  Because of your support, I am currently experiencing a record number of visitors!  I will continue to write articles relevant to modern education issues every Tuesday.  Keep checking back and spread the word  I appreciate your support.

An effective teacher provides an environment of safety, productivity, and involvement in the classroom.  Without these elements, students cannot successful acquire the skills, information, and lifelong desire to learn that all educators hope their students will achieve.  The following paragraphs will discuss elements involved in creating a satisfactory learning environment, as well as how these elements can be applied in the classroom and instructional settings.

One way in which a welcoming, safe, and motivating learning environment can be created is through the teachers’ relationships with their students.  Getting to know students on an individual level usually results in meaningful learning, due to knowing how to catch their attention and how to make curriculum meaningful.  As stated in Gloria Ladson-Billings’ (2006) chapter, “Yes, But How Do We Do It?” from the book White Teachers/Diverse Classrooms, in order to create a learning environment where students feel comfortable and are motivated to engage in activities, a teacher must create lessons that are culturally relevant.  Culturally relevant lessons consist of three elements:  academic achievement, cultural competence, and sociopolitical consciousness.  Ladson-Billings calls these three components “culturally relevant pedagogy”.  The basic idea behind this concept is to emphasize the importance of creating lessons connect classroom curriculum to elements of students’ lives—from outside the classroom as well as from inside the classroom.  As a result, the educator shows a level of care for the child as a person, not just as a student, and makes the material covered in the lesson more applicable.

A second way to build a welcoming learning environment is to build trust in the teacher-student relationship.  This trust can be created

and maintained by the teacher’s demonstration of genuine care and concern for the student.  This idea is described by Anne Gregory and Michael B. Ripski (2008) in their article, “Adolescent Trust in Teachers:  Implications for Behavior in the High School Classroom.” The authors believe that by adopting a relational approach to teaching, teachers can gain their students’ trust.  This trust is manifested through respect for authority, compliance to requests and rules, and greater academic achievement.  A relational approach to teaching in this article as a teacher-student relationship in which a teacher connects with students in connection with their lives and stays in tune with their emotional needs.

A third way to create safety, openness, and a positive atmosphere in the classroom is through the creation of basic class management procedures.  Just as with any other community, a classroom cannot function without procedures to protects and structure the environment.  If there is not level of order instilled, learning cannot take place (Queen, Blackwelder, & Mallen, 1997, as referenced in Kellough & Kellough, 2007).

***

In applying the information obtained from the research above, I will demonstrate how those ideas can be applied in the classroom.  In practicing the concepts of getting to know my students and building their trust, I attempt to consciously provide opportunities for them to tell the things that matter to them in conversation and in writing.  In the classroom, I try to make a habit of talking with students between classes, during lunch, and after school to build rapport.  Most students are pleased that their teacher is interested in learning what songs they like, what sports team they follow, and what they will do over the weekend.

Second, in starting my fall semester student teaching experience, I provided written opportunities for students to express their interest in reading and other free time activities.  For instance, in a reading attitude survey I distributed to my class, students indicated their interests in reading, their choice of reading materials, and how these selections fit into their culture and personal interests outside of school.

Finally, during the fall student teaching experience, I established some guidelines and goals for creating the welcoming, trusting environment mentioned in the research portion of this essay.  Three of the guidelines I set for the class include respect, community, and fairness.  Respect included care for one another as diverse assets to the classroom as well as care for themselves as capable and smart individuals.  Community refers to the idea that the classroom is a small community of cooperative learners, not competitive learners.  Fairness went both ways in the class:  the teacher toward the students, and the students toward the teacher.  I promised to not intentionally pick favorite students or be inconsistent in giving learning opportunities.

REFERENCES:

Gregory, A. & Ripski, M. B. (2008). Adolescent trust in teachers: Implications for behavior in the high school classroom. School Psychology Review, 37(3), 337-359.

Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). Yes, but how do we do it? Practicing culturally relevant pedagogy. In J. Landsman & C. Lewis (Eds.), White teachers/diverse classrooms: A guide to building inclusive schools, promoting high expectations, and eliminating racism (pp. 29-41). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Queen, J. A., Blackwelder, B. B., & Mallen, L. P. (1997), Responsible classroom management for teachers and students, as referenced in Kellough, R. D. & Kellough, N.G.  (2006). Secondary school teaching: A guide to methods and resources. Boston: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

On President Barack Obama’s personal website, he states his overall vision of education in America as that which enables students to compete in the global community.  However, Obama believes our education system, as it stands today, is unable to do so.  During a town hall meeting in Manchester, New Hampshire in November 2007, he proclaimed that the nations which beat the US in educational achievement will be much better equipped to play an important role in the global economy.  Further, he stated that China graduates eight time the number of engineers as the US, and that our high school seniors possess lower math and science test scores than much of the rest of the world.  Change is needed, and we need to “Rise to the Top”.

It seems Obama’s main rationale for this inadequacy stems from the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (otherwise known as No Child Left Behind, or NCLB for short) – passed during George W. Bush’s presidency.  Now, the President presents the disclaimer that NCLB in itself is not the problem.  In fact, he thinks it is founded on good principles.  However, it is the implementation and funding that are flawed.  One mistake with this legislature is that it makes schools hire and retain highly qualified teachers, attempt to close the achievement gap, increase accountability, and raise learning standards – all without the money needed to do so.  Another misstep he notes is through deeming certain schools and students as failures, yet walking away without support – thus allowing them to be left behind.  Essentially, Obama thinks more funding is needed for NCLB to be effective.

With the problem and potential cause stated, in the opinion of President Obama, he proceeds with his solution:  to reform NCLB.  He has coined the terms “Rise to the Top” and “New Vision for 21st Century Education” to describe his reform.  According to Suite 101’s education blog, in regard to standardized testing mandated by NCLB, “teachers should not be forced to spend the academic year preparing students to fill in bubbles on standardized tests…[President Obama] will improve the assessments used to track student progress to measure readiness for college.”  In regard to federal funding through the Act – as addressed during the New Hampshire meeting – our nation needs to support its schools in need, not punish them through removing funding.  Finally, the President explains that standardized learning goals should not come at the expense of a well-rounded education (such as cutting certain programs, like music, art, or gym), rather they should be a part of this well-rounded education.

At this point in the article, you may be saying to yourself, “great ideologies, but what specifically are you going to do?”  In further analyzing the 2007 town hall meeting, Obama rattles off a list of programs and ideas he plans as part of his reform package.  First, he wishes to make early childhood education more affordable through expanding pre-kindergarten programs, such as Head Start, Children’s First Agenda, and Early Learning Grants.  Second, he plans to recruit and prepare new educators through Service Scholarship programs that staff hard-to-fill rural and urban schools in high-need subjects.  Third, he requires all schools to achieve accreditation.  Fourth, he wishes to institute a national performance assessment for all teacher preparation programs.  Fifth, he hopes to establish official mentoring programs for new teachers.  Sixth, Obama aspires to provide increased pay and resources to reward teachers for making a difference in terms of school and student performance – not just based on standardized test scores.  Seventh, he will implement peer evaluation and peer support systems for all teachers.  Eighth, he will create standardized student standards that diagnose student learning need in which to be helped, such as digital portfolios, technology, and science components – in addition to the other core subjects.  Finally, he places the need for a greater emphasis on science education, which will greatly help US compete on a global level.  This list is quite ambitious, but is it feasible or even possible?

Pie in the sky or it’s about time?  There are plenty of supporters and opponents to Obama’s NCLB reform ideas. Eric Tipler

of Huffington Post sees the original NCLB as the non-realistic of the policies.  The proficiency deadline for 2014 was unrealistic in that it held TESOL and ESL students to the same level as native English speakers.  Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) held schools to an unrealistic standard of perfection as its goal, rather than a more realistic goal of relative yearly progress.  Current state standards based on NCLB do not prepare students for college or the working world, and Obama’s idea of national college/career-based standards are more realistic.

Many opponents of NCLB reform see Obama’s emphasis on more funding for early childhood education as inappropriate, because improving this age group’s development should fall in the hands of parents, not the school system – that more emphasis should be place on K-12 education.  Opponents of NCLB reform also believe Obama’s idea of merit pay will not necessarily attract better teachers, as much as attract teachers who enter the field for the pay rather than the virtue of teaching.  Obama’s reform to make higher education more accessible in terms of learning standards ignores the fact that college costs are rising – according to these opponents – and the increase in Pell Grants won’t compensate for these rising costs, they claim.

Can President Obama’s reform occur, given the state of our nation’s economy and given the ever-widening bipartisan split occurring in Congress?  At the time of his election in November 2008, Obama believed more funding was needed for NCLB to be effective, but would be a challenge with the economic downturn before the beginning of his administration.  At that point, NCLB reform was placed on hold. Though his reform ideas were placed on hold initially due to the recession, the president would like these reforms to be reauthorized as a part of the 2011 federal budget.  Andrew Rotherham of Education Sector (a think tank) thinks getting this reform to pass through Congress will be tough.  Many education leaders think Obama’s plan takes on a more forceful role of government on education than experienced before, and that more specifics are needed in order to for the reform plan to be justified.  Personally, I am completely on board with Obama’s ideas of more meaningful and applicable learning standards – including greater emphasis on technology and science – and I believe more funding should go into education.  However, I just do not know where the money will come from at this time.  While I see the spending that has increased our deficit as the best attempt at investing in a stronger future economy, I note that education often takes the back seat and much of the nation’s citizens are fed up with mega-spending.  So my final thought is that NCLB reform will unfortunately go back on the shelf to collect dust.

What are your thoughts?

REFERENCES:

The Better Teacher Project, “Assessing President Obama’s Educational Reform Initiative”,  (accessed 2/2/10, http://betterteacher.org/Professional-Development/Obama-Health-Plan.asp)

Hopkins, Leigh. Suite 101:  Educational Issues, “President Obama’s Proposed Education Agenda: Will No Child Left Behind Be Left Behind in the New President’s Plan” (accessed 2/2/10, http://educationalissues.suite101.com/article.cfm/president_obamas_proposed_education_agenda)

Organizing for America, “Education”, (accessed 2/2/10, http://www.barackobama.com/issues/education/)

Paulson, Amanda. Yahoo! News, “Education reform: Obama budget reboots No Child Left Behind”,  (accessed 2/2/10, http://news.yahoo.com/s/csm/20100202/ts_csm/277450)

White, Deborah. U.S. Liberal Politics, “Obama’s Education Plan to Reform Schools & Reward Teachers”,  (accessed 2/2/10, http://usliberals.about.com/od/education/a/ObamaEdPlan.htm)

Active and meaningful learning requires students to be independent learners.  They do not acquire this ability on their own; as teachers, we must show them how this ability is achieved.  To impart the skills needed for students to become self-motivated and self-generated learners, educators must possess a wealth of instructional strategies.  The best teachers realize that students’ learning styles are as numerous as the students themselves, and teachers must be capable of adopting flexibility in their teaching as a result.  The following paragraphs will look deeper into this need to diversify teaching styles, examples of best practices for carrying out this needs, and examine how I have used—and plan to use—varied instructional strategies within the classroom.

The first discussion regarding diverse instructional strategies should analyze the different levels of learning for which strategies are applied.  This analysis is best explained using Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy.  Bloom is an expert in the field who describes learning as six levels of increasing complexity.  His levels of learning begin with learning of terminology (most basic), then continue to comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and end with evaluation (most complex).  At each level, Bloom connects several outcome-illustrating verbs that identify learning at that particular level.  Those verbs guide educators in developing learning strategies for a particular learning level.  For example, level one (knowledge) learning includes students’ ability to define, identify, and state facts.  Another example illustrates that level four (analysis, or breaking information down into basic pieces) learning includes the ability to categorize, compare and contrast, and make inferences about the information presented to the students.  Finally, level six (evaluation, or judging the value of information based on opinion or logic) learning involves such actions as criticizing, interpreting, and forming conclusions about the information presented (Boom, 1956, as referenced in Krumme, 2008).  The structure provided by Bloom provides educators with foundation with which scaffolded instructional strategies can be created.

With the basic foundation of learning defined above, the topic of instructional strategies can continue with a discussion on the learning environment in which the strategies are applied (i.e. the classroom and its students).  As mentioned in the opening paragraph, students’ learning styles, as well as their learning needs, are as numerous as the students filling the classroom.  Additionally, the abilities of students vary just as much, thus the need for a collection of many teaching strategies.  This need is best seen in the inclusion classroom.  Spencer J. Salend (2007) in his book, Creating Inclusive Classrooms:  Effective and Reflective Practices, defines inclusion as the combining of diverse students, families, and teachers into the same classroom as a way to create an environment of acceptance, belonging, and community.  This concept places the urgency of differentiated instruction at a very high level.  Effectively differentiated instruction takes into account content, process, product, affect (emotions and attitudes), and learning environment.

Looking specifically at differentiated instructional strategies within social studies, the learning materials an educator

chooses can make the difference between engaged and lost students.  Often secondary level textbooks—the traditional instructional tool of social studies curriculum—and some instructional materials prove too difficult for many students, especially those possessing learning disabilities.  Because of this fact, educators need to provide various strategies for tackling these overwhelming materials.  Such strategies include pre-reading to discover unknown vocabulary, to analyze the headings and subheadings of chapters and sections to acquire the main topics to be discussed within the materials, and to examine the photographs and captions within to further develop a sense of the main themes (Salend, 2007, pp. 470-471).  Further textbook strategies include guided notetaking, study guides to direct students to key ideas within the text, and the use of graphic organizers before or during text reading for the same purpose as well as in order to organize ideas in students’ minds while reading (Salend, 2007, pp. 471-477).  These strategies also accommodate for the needs of visual and kinesthetic learners, thus further differentiation is taking place through their use.

In addition to textbooks, social studies classrooms use myriad types of materials to communicate course content.  According to B. Keith Lenz and Donald D. Deshler (2004) in Teaching Content to All:  Evidence-Based Inclusive Practices in Middle and Secondary Schools, content can be taught through use of primary and secondary print materials, photographs and illustrations, books on tape, and many other formats.  Many of the same instructional strategies mentioned above for making sense of textbooks also apply to making sense of these teaching materials.  By using a combination of these different types of materials, teachers can better engage students in lessons by meeting the various learning styles of their students.  This student engagement demonstrates educators’ differentiation of their instruction to accommodate those styles.

Just as discovery of students’ varied learning styles is important for the success of teacher instruction, so is the discovery of students’ varied learning abilities and needs.  Every student is at a different place in his/her cognitive development, so instruction should be layered—or scaffolded—to meet each student’s needs and in order to provide challenges to guide in reaching the next level of student-directed learning.  Lenz and Deshler recognize scaffolding instruction as a dialogue that gradually intensifies the learning process and increases critical thinking abilities.  (Lenz & Deshler, 2004).  Lev Vygotsky claims that the most basic level of scaffolded instruction begins with drawing on students’ prior knowledge of the world in order to make meaning of new content.  Once that new content is acquired, it is used in order to make meaning of yet more challenging concepts (Newman & Holtzman, 1992, as referenced in Singer, 2003).  Creating and using scaffolded instruction will aid not only students with learning disabilities, but all students within an inclusive classroom as well.

***

All of the instructional strategies mentioned above can be easily applied in the classroom, and importantly should be a part of teaching students.  During my student teaching experiences at Fordham, I was able to use these strategies in both a middle school and a high school environment.  Going forward in my career, I intend to include the following strategies and develop others with experience.

My first example revolves around teaching reading comprehension skills in a middle school last fall.  I accomplished this task by tutoring a sixth grader in finding basic comprehension and higher-level critical thinking through the use of historical fiction.  Through a pre-reading exercise of having the student skim a chapter for unfamiliar vocabulary and look for their meanings in a dictionary, I taught several skills.  First, I instructed him to skim a reading for main ideas.  Second, through identifying new word and finding their meanings, I taught him how to increase his access to the English language.  Finally, through using a dictionary to find these words, I taught him how to use reference materials for information—as opposed to simply asking for the answers.  After pre-reading strategies were completed, I used guided reading to help the student find meaning through stopping after each paragraph, in order for me to ask scaffolded questions which start with concrete components of the book and work up to complex inferences and connections to history.  Finally in post-reading, I guided the student to reflect on each chapter and to write complete responses with supporting evidence.  The results of these instructional strategies were deeper meaning in using historical fiction and improved ability to communicate meaning orally and in writing.

My second example of applied instructional strategies concerns using varied teaching materials for differentiating

curriculum.  In the spring semester, I taught a unit of the spread of communism for a tenth grade global history class.  The final lesson of the unit covered the end of the Vietnam War, specifically how guerilla warfare tactics gave the Vietcong an advantage over U.S. weaponry.  Instead of the using printed text materials, the main teaching materials were photographs in a PowerPoint slide show.  A set of photos, found on the Internet, were sequenced to create the story of how the Vietcong used local land to outsmart the U.S. and South Vietnamese freedom fighters.  As I told the story of the Vietcong’s victory, students would study each picture.  I asked scaffolded questions so students could identify what they saw, to predict how they thought each one fit into the story, and to connect each part of the story to the overall story of the Vietnam War (studied in an activity the day before).  As students answered questions, they would take notes on a graphic organizer provided at the beginning of class.  For homework, students used their notes and memories of the photos to create a cartoon.  The criteria for the cartoon included pictures that showed Vietcong advantages and U.S. disadvantages in the war, as well as captions to demonstrate comprehension of key ideas behind communist victory (which was discussed as a closure question).  The result of this lesson was differentiated instruction through verbal and visual communication, scaffolding through leveled questioning, and higher-level thinking through creation of the cartoon.

My final example of applied strategies utilizes both scaffolded questioning.  In a lesson during the same unit as illustrated above, students completed an activity using propaganda posters to learn the power of propaganda, the emotions this form of communication creates, and how it promotes Cold War ideals.  Students looked at three examples of Cold War propaganda and answered questions to identify the components of each picture, then find symbolism in those components, and finally to explain the significance of the posters to the Cold War and the ideals of the time.  Through this activity, student further discovered why the Cold War was a war of fear and threats, and why it was arguably just as powerful as World War II.

REFERENCES

Bloom (1956), as referenced in Krumme (2007). Major categories in the taxonomy of educational objectives. Retrieved April 6, 2009, from Krumme Family Web site:  http://krummefamily.org/guides/bloom.html

Lenz, B. K. & Deshler, D. D. (2004). Teaching content to all: Evidence-based inclusive practices in middle and secondary schools. Boston: Pearson Education.

Newman, F. & Holtzman, L. (1992). Lev Vygotsky: Revolutionary scientist. New York: Routledge, as referenced in Singer, A.J. (2003). Social Studies for secondary schools: teaching to learn, learning to teach. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Salend, S. J. (2007). Creating inclusive classrooms: Effective and reflective practices for all students. Boston: Pearson Education.

Curriculum should be differentiated according to students’ needs, so that young people of diverse cultures, learning styles, and abilities can find meaning.  The following paragraphs will address diversity’s presence in the classroom, through students’ backgrounds and abilities, as well as through applied examples of how educators can discover this diversity and use it in instruction.

The first element of diversity among students regards learning styles.  In understanding that students are unique individuals, educators must notice the assortment of learning styles these young men and women possess.  There are four basic learning styles:  visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and analytical.  By creating curriculum that addresses each of these styles, more students are able to find meaning from a lesson or activity.

The second element of diversity among students concerns the lives of the students outside of the classroom.  Effective educators realize that learning does not only occur in the classroom, but that outside factors influence students’ learning and acquisition of information.  Gloria Ladson-Billings (2006) emphasizes this fact in her chapter, “Yes, But How Do We Do It?” in White Teachers/Diverse Classrooms.  She alludes to the idea that students’ entire lives—cultures, living arrangements, and neighborhoods (called “social context”)—provide educational opportunities and shape the way in which they best acquire that information.  As a result, students bring these outside factors to school each day, and so these factors influence how they acquire academic information.  For teachers to address these complex individuals, they must become familiar with them as people—not simply as students.  Doing so provides a canvas upon which genuine curricular learning can take place, and upon which lessons can become “real”, or culturally relevant.

The third and final aspect of student diversity discussed here regards learning abilities.  In inclusive classrooms, teachers will see varying strengths and challenges within each student and will need to address each one.  It is given that general education students will be present, but it should also be understood that many other groups exist.  For example, English language learners (ELLs), learning disabled (LD), and gifted/talented students can be found (Salend, 2008).  In this portion of the essay, I will only focus on the three groups above.

ELLs are students who do not speak English fluently and possess a different language in which they speak the majority of the time (e.g. at home with family and friends).  Angela L. Carrasquillo and Vivian Rodriguez (2002) address in their book, Language Minority Students in the Mainstream Classroom, some specific needs of these individuals.  They note that while most ELLs are proficient in English, they continue to struggle with it in school.  The suggested reason for this struggle is linked to the distinction between “basic interpersonal communication skills” (BICS) and “cognitive academic language proficiency” (CALP).  The former concept is context-embedded, meaning language skill building is hidden within the text and learned through cues and context clues.  The latter concept is context-reduced, meaning language skill building does not exist in the text, and an already proficient grasp on the vocabulary and academic language is required for comprehension—therefore it is the more challenging of the two ideas and the area of concern.

In order to guide these students toward greater linguistic success, teachers must connect subject content directly to ELL’s lives.  Activities such as creating oral history presentations, participating in cooperative learning assignments, and working on projects that incorporate multimedia all provide opportunities for these students to excel (Carrasquillo & Rodriguez, 2002).

LD students present another set of academic challenges.  Learning disabilities are high-incidence disorders that hinder ability to understand information, and may manifest itself through inability to communicate or think.  This group is growing, in part, due to social acceptability of the disorders.  However, it commonly goes undiagnosed, so they actual incidence number is probably higher.  LDs are distinct from ELLs in that they often struggle with memory, attention, or organizational abilities, while ELLs may not necessarily exhibit these aspects.  The two groups are similar, however, when LD presents itself through language difficulty.  Like ELLs, LDs often do not have the vocabulary knowledge needed to understand grade-level texts written in English (Salend, 2008).

Several approaches are suggested in assisting students with LD.  These approaches include collaboration with service providers and paraeducators, use of instructional technology, and differentiating instruction according to students’ needs.  By incorporating these suggestions, meaningful subject content can be achieved (Salend, 2008).

Gifted/talented students make up the third group of exceptional students in this discussion.  They add to the class’s diversity due to their complexity and abilities.  Spencer J. Salend (2008) explains that these students may differ vastly from one another in their strengths, learning styles, and learning needs.  Gifted/talented students are discovered through teacher referrals and intelligence testing.  Also, the definitions of gifted and talented have changed over time.  While at one time, the gifted/talented classification was only given for academic intelligence, Gardiner’s multiple intelligences are now being used to create a more holistic definition of this classification.  Finally, emotional intelligence now plays a factor in modern classification.

In order to differentiate instruction for these learners, Salend suggests such strategies as curriculum compacting and problem-based learning.  The former strategy allows students to show achievement through more challenging curriculum, sometimes selected by the students.  The latter strategy sees curriculum in terms of problem-solving opportunities; students explore complex solutions to open-ended content area issues by way of research and in-depth thinking.  These instructional ideas address motivation, which is often the primary concern with gifted/talented students (Salend, 2008).

***

The ideas discussed in the research above only outline a few examples of diversity among students inside and outside of the classroom.  Those examples must be applied to planning and instruction in order to be effective.  In the following paragraphs, I will demonstrate three ways in which I previously took into account such diversity and implemented it in my teaching.

First, in learning the culture and background of one student from the fall semester’s student teaching experience, I conducted an informal interview with him during lunch.  The main point of this interview was to learn more about the person so that I could better understand the student.  Though keeping his attention was a challenge, I was able to learn a great deal about his home life, interests, and attitude about homework during the weekends.  This information gave me the ability to understand some of his inattentive behavior and incomplete homework in class.

Second, I was able to learn about an entire class of students regarding a topic that involves opinions both inside and outside of school:  reading.  I accomplished this learning experience by administering a reading attitude survey to each student of a civil rights history class last fall.  The students ranged from grades five through eight, and varied greatly in learning abilities and styles.  The results of the survey were pretty varied, too.  While almost every student enjoyed reading, some students preferred assigned books from school and other students preferred books of their choosing.  Additionally, some students enjoyed reading with older siblings, whereas some students liked reading alone.  Only one student admitted in his survey that he disliked reading, which was due to his struggle with doing so.

Finally, in understanding the diversity of students in any given classroom, I take into account various disabilities my students possess.  Some of these disabilities involve learning and some involve other disorders.  While in the research portion of this essay I addressed learning disabled students, I would like to address demonstration of other disabilities in order to provide a fuller picture of the diversity that can exist in an inclusion class.

During the fall semester student teaching experience, I created a lesson plan that modified curriculum for four high-incidence disabilities:  hearing impairment, visual impairment, Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD), and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).  The lesson topic was Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education, which is the case that began the official Civil Rights Movement.  In the lesson plan, I included specific modifications to each section, so that students with the four mentioned disabilities could receive the same learning opportunities as the rest of the class.  Changes such as large-font type, and speaking and writing activity directions; as well as environmental changes like strategic seating, closing windows, and adjusting lighting accounted for the various needs in the class.

In closing, every student in a classroom is different and unique.  No two students possess identical abilities, backgrounds, or learning styles.  For this reason, educators must get to know their students as people, as well as learners, to be effective in guiding them toward success.  The research and application mentioned in this essay provide evidence of this crucial need.

REFERENCES

Carrasquillo, A. L. & Rodriguez, V. (2002). Language minority students in the mainstream classroom. Clevedon: Multilingual Materials.

Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). Yes, but how do we do it? Practicing culturally relevant pedagogy. In J. Landsman & C. Lewis (Eds.), White teachers/diverse classrooms: A guide to building inclusive schools, promoting high expectations, and eliminating racism (pp. 29-41). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Salend, S. J. (2007). Creating inclusive classrooms: Effective and reflective practices for all students. Boston: Pearson Education.

Development is defined in a somewhat holistic light, by separating it into three distinct categories:  intellectual, social, and personal.  As explained by Robert E. Slavin (2003) in Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice, adolescence begins with the onset of puberty but includes more than simply physical development.  Intellectual development during this age introduces the student into Jean Piaget’s “formal operation stage”, in which abstract thought begins to form.  Social development moves students from adults to peers as chief influences in their lives.  Finally, personal development involves the formation of identity and self-concept—ideas identified with Erik Erikson (pp. 86-90).  The following discussion will further explain each of these three developmental categories, suggest proven strategies for addressing accompanying factors in adolescent teaching, and provide examples of how specific instruction can be applied in the classroom to positively meet the needs of each category.

First, in developing teaching strategies to meet the intellectual needs of students, educators need to identify and understand how intellect develops during adolescence.  As mentioned in the introductory paragraph, students begin to form more abstract analytical skills, meaning they are better able to think critically and construct their own learning from information and ideas presented to them.  Child psychologist Jean Piaget calls this concept the “formal operation stage” of development.  The onset of this stage averages around age eleven—once students begin to use logic in solving problems instead of only copying directly-modeled steps in doing so.  Strategies such as deductive reasoning and propositional thought enter students’ arsenal of cognitive problem-solving tactics (Berk, 2001, pp. 370-71).

Intellectual strategies that take intellectual development into account must first involve capturing student interest.  As Paul R. Burden and David M. Byrd (1999) explain in, Methods of Effective Teaching, student curiosity and interest must be obtained and maintained in order to appeal to their intellectual needs.  Some teaching activities that achieve this goal are those which incorporate students’ personal interests, are active and interactive, and involve questioning and/or opinions (pp. 283-86).

Second, this discussion turns to adolescent social development and how classroom instruction meets students’ needs within this category.  As with intellectual growth, educators must know and identify how social growth occurs within this age group.  In explaining social development, Laura E. Berk (2001) identifies formation of peer relationships as the primary factor impacting this category.  Students spend less time with family member and other adults, and spend more time with classmates and friends during this period of life (p. 403).  In fact, she reports that most positive emotional experiences among adolescents occur during time with friends (Larson & Richards, 1991, as referenced in Berk, 2001, p. 403).  Berk also notes benefits of peer social development as deeper explanation of self and others, better ability to deal with the stress of growing up, and improved attitude about school and academic success (p. 404).

In creating curriculum that accommodates and assists in social development, teachers should provide ample time for students

to interact with, and learn from, one another.  One suggestion to accomplish this task, mentioned by Burden and Byrd (1999) is peer tutoring.  Peer tutoring can involve pairwork within the class or one-on-one interaction outside of the formal class.  In either scenario, benefits of peer tutoring include engaging students who do not respond well to adults, and students discovering how to both teach and learn.

Finally, the third category of adolescent development involves the personal growth of the student as a unique and important individual.  It is during middle and high school years that students form their own definitions of who they are and what they are about.  To further expound on this observation, Erik Erikson sees this stage of development as one of a series of dilemmas people experience in approaching adulthood.  Stage Five of Erikson’s psychosocial development model is called, “identity versus role confusion.”  During the teenage years, students try to answer the question, “Who am I?”  To answer, they must analyze their own motives, abilities, and beliefs.  Failure to do so results in identity crisis.  Successful identity development is called either identity achievement (commitment to pursuing life goals) or moratorium (delay of commitment to pursuing goals).  Unsuccessful identity development falls into either identity foreclosure (commitment to goals without exploring options) or identity diffusion (lack of both commitment and exploration) (Erickson, as referenced in Woolfolk, 2004, pp. 68-69).

Academic instruction that includes consideration of personal development must allow students to explore their own beliefs, goals, and talents.  Burden and Byrd (1999, p. 287-89) believe developmental instruction involves making subject matter relevant to students as more than students, but as people.  Such lesson should include having students set learning goals, helping students assess their progress, and allowing students control over their learning.

***

Now that the three categories of adolescent development are defined, and the instructional needs of these students are explained, I would like to demonstrate specific ways in which these aspects of development can be applied to classroom lessons.  In doing so, I will provide examples of how I accomplished this task via my student teaching experiences in New York during the 2008-2009 school year.  My hope is that these activities exemplify progressive methodology and effective application.

To begin with intellectual development, I present an experiential activity facilitated in a tenth grade global history class during the Spring 2009 semester.  The activity took place during a unit I created on “The Spread of Communism”, and opened a lesson on the Berlin Blockade and Airlift.  The objectives of this activity were for students to identify problems associated with political opposition between countries, how everyday life can be affected as a result, and to make predictions about possible options countries have in resolving opposition.  The activity opened with two students dividing the classroom in half with duct tape, essentially blockading the room from certain supplies and materials.  Next, I explained the necessity of these supplies for a map activity on NATO and the Warsaw Pact.  Following, students discovered firsthand that the items needed were only available to one side of the room.  The neglected side was forced to think through its steps in solving this problem.  After a few minutes, I stopped the activity and we discussed what happened as a group.

Through experiencing this activity without explanation of its historical relevance prior to participating, students engaged in an activity that forced them to think critically and move into abstract analysis.  They began with the concrete details (tape, divided room, no supplies), built upon those details to state a problem (inability to complete the map project), to finally thought critically about solutions (sneak under the barrier, secretly convince the other side to pass supplies through the barrier).  By making the activity experiential, students’ interests were captured.  They were not just “doing” the activity, they “were” the activity, therefore personal interests were involved.  By discussing their participation and thoughts afterward, students were able to better connect the abstract idea of effects of political conflict to their concrete quality of life and success.

Next, in applying the instructional needs that accompany social development, I created an activity that combines primary resources with peer teaching.  In the same unit on communism, I taught the importance of the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences to the Cold War through using the jigsaw learning strategy.  The goal of this activity was for students to explain how their given conferences resulted in conflict that led to the Cold War.  To begin, students were paired up.  Next, each pair was given a copy of one conference’s transcript.  Each document was scaffolded by providing definitions alongside difficult words.  Students also received graphic organizers with guiding questions to further support learning.  Third, one student in each pair read his/her document to the other, while the other student recorded answers on his/her organizer.  Fourth, pairs discussed their answers with each other to obtain a consensus.  Finally, each pair shared their answers with the rest of the class, as a jigsaw that allowed students to continue teaching each other.

It was through the pairing and sharing strategies in this activity that students demonstrated peer tutoring or teaching.  They

collaborated with one another in pairs and taught each other in order to get a greater understanding of their documents and the documents of other pairs.  I think this activity was more effective than a simple lecture or presentation because the need for students to interact with each other was fulfilled.

Finally, in demonstrating how instruction can assist adolescents with personal development, I will explain a survey I administered to my middle school students during the Fall 2008 semester.  In order to become more acquainted with individual students in a Civil Rights History course, I handed each person a reading preference questionnaire.  The questionnaire includes items on reading preferences, self-assessment of reading ability, and opinions about reading with others.  After receiving completed surveys from my class, I learned that all but one person enjoys reading, most of the girls enjoy reading with family members while most boys like reading alone, and that one student does not think he is an effective reader. In addition, students named books they enjoy, which gave me a sense of their personal interests and motivators.  It was a very fun and useful activity.

The biggest benefit of the survey is that it allowed students to tell me about themselves and share things in their lives they feel are important.  In doing so, they continued to develop their identities through analyzing personal interests, beliefs, and preferences. They also demonstrated openness in sharing parts of themselves with me in doing so—further forming trust.  I certainly want to administer this questionnaire with every student I teach in the future—to build relationships and to learn how better to differentiate my teaching.

In closing, making lessons interactive, taking into account each student’s learning needs, and involving students’ interests creates great motivation in students to participate in lessons, as well as provides a springboard for their development from children into young adults.  Making students feel like important individuals and contributors will make your lessons important to them.

REFERENCES

Berk, L. E. (2001). Development through the lifespan. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Burden, P. R. & Byrd, D. M. (1999). Effective teaching. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Slavin, R. E. (2003). Educational Psychology: Theory and practice. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Woolfolk, A. (2004). Educational Psychology. Boston: Pearson Education.

It is a new month, a new year and a new semester.  Evaluation of goals set and met in 2009 is taking place, and new goals and resolutions for 2010 are being created.  Ambitions are high and follow through is of great concern.

The holiday season has passed and schools are back in session.  Thoughts on the minds of teachers and students have changed from winter break to spring break, summer, and – for some – graduation.  Teachers are beginning to prepare for year-end state standardized tests and lessons plans that prepare students for such assessments.  Administrators are looking ahead to the next academic year, considering their staffing needs and budgets.  New professionals entering the education field are readying their resumes.  It’s now open season for teaching positions – may the job hunt begin!

For a second year, I find myself a player in the search for a classroom position.  I, too, have set high goals and ambitions for 2010 along these lines.  In setting these goals, I first compared the education environment in which I resided last year with that of this year.  Last year, I lived in New York City and was entering my second of three semesters at Fordham University.  I began creating my graduate thesis and formulating a resume for use in my upcoming job search. To enhance this resume, I was about to embark on a student teaching internship that would allow me much classroom and planning experience, as well as the eventual invitation to two academic honor societies, a professional association membership, and two teaching certificates. Despite these achievements, I hit a major roadblock.  During that semester, I attended a recruiting session for the local public school district, but soon after learned that strict hiring restrictions were to be established – greatly prohibiting me from achieving my goal of becoming a classroom educator in New York.  This year, I note the much improved situation in which I reside here in the Virginia/DC area.  First, there are no hiring restrictions in effect.  Second, there are several school districts that are growing due to the population explosion in Northern Virginia and Maryland.  Finally, I have a larger network of educators and people with resources that can help me achieve my goals than in New York.

Next in setting my professional goals for 2010, I am able to assess what experience I have gained since applying for

teaching position in early 2009.  I have added to my classroom experience by substituting for two school districts in Northern Virginia, and the site coordinator and elementary reading teacher for a Saturday supplemental education program, and am helping teach two Sunday school classes of children ranging from ages 3-18.  In addition to providing much enjoyment to my life, my hope is that the added experience will make me more well rounded and intriguing to administrators seeking teachers.

Finally, in setting and attempting to achieve my professional goals for 2010, I need to explore next steps.  I have picked 10 public school districts in the area, and a plethora of private/parochial/Christian schools, with which to pursue a position.  I am keeping alert to job fairs, employment offerings, and word of mouth for the 2010-2011 year, in addition to posting my resume online through Monster.com and a state employment agency.  Additionally, I am applying to schools and districts, so as to be added to applicant pools – knowing that not all teaching vacancies are advertised to the public.  All in all, I feel that last year was an intense learning experience and this year is a chance to better and more effectively apply that learning.  I’ve traded feelings of being overwhelmed with feelings of being eager and excited.

In conclusion, open season for filling teaching vacancies has begun.  Through experience, achievements and wisdom gained in 2009, I feel confident and ready for my goals to be achieved in 2010.  Though I’ve alluded to my goals for 2010, they are really the same as 2009 (achieving a classroom teaching position for next year).  In 2010, I am better prepared for the challenge of the hunt and more confident that I will come home with the prize.  Let the adventure begin!

There are a number of skills that can be developed within the social studies curriculum, and a number of ways to teach these skills.  All of these skills are modeled by the educator for the purposes of creating thoughtful global citizens, as well as individuals well versed in how the human experience of the past is connected to the events of the present.  The following paragraphs will introduce two of the most important skills used in social studies to guide students in gaining meaning from subject content.  Also, a discussion on how these skills can be applied in a classroom environment will follow.

The first important skill social studies students must acquire in gaining important concepts, ideas, and connections relates to analysis of documents.  Some of the most useful and important documents to social studies are historical in nature—both primary and secondary resources.  Alan J. Singer (2003) states in Social Studies for Secondary Schools:  Teaching to Learn, Learning to Teach that these documents are used specifically for students to learn how actual historians learn—through understanding overarching ideas, discovering connections between ideas, and forming conclusions based on information within the documents.  While these skills are essential for historians, they are needed by anyone studying the human experience.  These resources, referred to by Singer, not only include historical texts, but can encompass photographs, cartoons, songs, articles, and graphs as well.

The author continues his discussion by noting that educators must be masters of subject content in order to teach the skill of analyzing documents within social studies.  In addition, teachers must be familiar with state, city, and/or district curriculum standards in order to meet the needs of students when using document-based learning, or any learning strategy for that matter (Singer, 2003, p. 183).

Further, not all students can obtain the needed information to utilize analysis, synthesis, or evaluative skills simply from reading a text or looking at a photograph.  Sufficient scaffolding of the document’s content is needed in order for this information to be accessible by all students in the classroom (Robb, 2003).

Another important social studies learning skill to be addressed is questioning.  It is through questioning that a great deal of subject knowledge can be obtained.  Stephen Brookfield (1999) identifies the importance of discussion—a major setting for social studies questioning—in gaining meaning and purpose.  He further explains that learning to question effectively requires practice and thoughtfulness—both for the teacher and the student—so must be approached with care (p. 87).

There are many types of questions that can aid students in achieving purpose and meaning from social studies content.  Some types mentioned by Brookfield include those that ask for evidence, those that ask for the cause-effect relationship of specific ideas or events, and those that ask for students to synthesize (or construct) meaning from content (Brookfield, 1999).

Questions such as, “What does the author say in support of your argument?” ask for evidence to back up an answer given in the classroom.  Questions such as, “How might having our class size halved affect our discussion?” require students to analyze the impact of an event on the people involved.  Finally, questions such as, “What remains unresolved…about this topic?” invite students to recall ideas and events, break them down into components they can relate to, and reconstruct their own ideas about the most important ideas, key relationships, or opinions on a person’s claim (Brookfield, 1999).

The varied levels of questioning mentioned above allow students to acquire relevance from social studies content.  In addition, they utilize the concepts behind Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) in doing so.  Bloom believes that constructing knowledge takes place through student performance at increasingly challenging cognitive levels.  In taking the question examples from Brookfield, evidence questions use skill level 1, which requires students to recall information presented; cause-effect questions use skill level 4, which requires analyzing information; and synthesis questions use skill level 6, which requires creating new ideas from provided or previously provided information (Bloom, 1956, as referenced in Overbaugh & Schultz, 2009).

***

All of the above skills and strategies are central to effective and impacting learning within social studies curriculum and instruction.  The following paragraphs will demonstrate how analysis of documents and posing of discussion questions can be directly applied to the social studies classroom.  I will narrow the focus of this discussion on my student teaching experience during the Spring 2009 semester, when I was at an urban high school in New York City and taught in a tenth grade global history classroom.  Examples provided are actual activities conducted during the course of the semester.

First, in imparting social studies content through document-based learning I used primary sources as my focus.  In a lesson near the beginning of a unit on “The Spread of Communism,” I facilitated a group activity involving excerpts from the Yalta and Postdam Conference transcripts.  The purposes for using these sources were students to simulate the research of historians, to build on student reading skills, and for them to synthesize their own meaning from texts and other materials.  This lesson was presented as a groupwork activity in which students analyzed statements, section by section with the help of graphic organizers, to find the main objectives of each conference.  To further guide students in acquiring historical meaning from these very challenging documents, I included questions on the organizers to scaffold their comprehension.

At the end of the readings, students possessed completed outlines of the key goals from the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences—by which they could then identify and argue the origins of the Cold War.  To close the lesson, selected representatives from the Yalta group and from the Potsdam group shared their knowledge with the class, so that all learners could share in the access to valuable social studies subject knowledge.

Second, social studies subject knowledge was also achieved by way of class discussion.  It was during discussions that students were able to demonstrate their prior knowledge, build new knowledge, and form important connections within a historical context.  One example of such a discussion took place during a lesson on communist China.  This particular lesson opened with a discussion on how Mao Zedong rose to power—based on a reading excerpt about the topic.  I opened with some lower-level questions so as to determine what the class gained from the previous day’s lesson.  They were a little slow to recall information at first, so I provided wait time and asked another recall question to trigger their memories.  In doing so, a few students began to participate and demonstrate their recall.  It was at this point that I could ask more challenging questions in hope that the class would demonstrate comprehension of that day’s reading on Mao.

Finally, when I saw demonstration of that skill I questioned so as to encourage students to connect the ideas from the reading to the bigger picture ideas behind communism as an economic entity.  For the most part, I think this method of discussion created learning opportunities for most of my students, and I think it also somewhat resembled my demonstration of concepts illustrated by Bloom.

Finally, in building social studies content knowledge in my students, I also applied Bloom’s higher-level skill ideas

by using them in a performance assessment activity.  Toward the end of the “Spread of Communism” unit, I invited my students to demonstrate synthesis of knowledge acquired during the unit.  Essentially, students were faced with a situation—based on events studied in the unit—and expected to respond in one of three ways.  The situation involved U.S. President Lyndon Johnson’s announcement of sending American troops to Vietnam to combat communism in that country.  My students were expected to demonstrate their understanding of communist ideals, capitalist resistance to those ideals, and their own feelings on the matter.  Ways in which they could accomplish this task were by writing letters to the President stating their opinions with supporting evidence, by creating political cartoons that provided evidence-supported viewpoints, or subway advertisements that demonstrated these same skills.  In completing this assignment, students built upon their knowledge, improved their critical thinking skills, and expressed their feelings with chosen media—thus making the unit more meaningful to them.

In closing, the acquisition of social studies knowledge far transcends the mere memorization of names and dates.  It demonstrates more than ability to score well on standardized tests—though that is important.  It also exceeds the need to solely understand the human experience in past societies.  The possession of social studies subject knowledge allows a person to better understand the world around him, it instills in him the meaning of being a global citizen, and it reveals to him how he can find answers to challenging questions about the world around him.  However, in order to do any of these things, the individual needs a teacher who possesses mastery of the subject taught, so that the important skills needed to achieve these abilities are within his reach.  The purpose of this essay—and the essays that follow—is to show how this equipping of knowledge is done.

References:

Bloom (1956), as referenced in Overbaugh, R. C. & Schultz, L. (2009). Bloom’s taxonomy.  Retrieved June 1, 2009, from Old Dominion University Web site: http://www.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/Bloom/blooms_taxonomy.htm

Brookfield, S. (1999). Discussion as a way of teaching (pp. 85-102). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Robb, L. (2003). Teaching reading in social studies, science, and math. New York: Scholastic Professional Books.

Singer, A .J. (2003). Social Studies for secondary schools: teaching to learn, learning to teach.  Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.